how to handle outliers, whether to combine groups, including/excluding covariates) which will produce a statistically significant p-value. In contrast, p-hacking occurs when an initial analysis produces results which are close to being statistically significant, then, in absence of a study protocol, researchers can make analytic choices (e.g. Ideally, these choices are guided by the principles of best practice and prespecified in a publicly available protocol. For example, in nearly any analysis of data there are several “researcher degrees of freedom”- i.e., choices that must be made in the process of analysis. ![]() fishing, p-hacking), but each essentially involves probing the data in unplanned ways, finding and reporting an “attractive” result, without accurately conveying the course of analysis. Data-dredging bias is a general category which includes a number of misuses of statistical inference (e.g.
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